Roman Roads free essay sample

Compare/contrast Roman roads to modern roads The Romans created many useful objects that people use today. For example, they created arches, domes, pizza, and many other great things. The strong Roman road stuck out in my mind because we use roads everyday. The modern road wouldnt be strong and durable enough if the tough Roman road wasnt created. One of the secrets behind the Roman roads success is the materials used to form it. The bottom layer of the mighty Roman road, called the fossa, is made up of fine dirt. The middle layer, called the pavimentum, is crafted with gravel or sand. The second to top layer, known as the radus, is made with fine concrete. The top layer, called the summum dorsum, is made with flat stones and concrete. Our modern roads are made with crushed rock, known as arggregate, at the bottom. Then there is the base, which is a huge layer of concrete in the middle. We will write a custom essay sample on Roman Roads or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Lastly, there is the pavement, called the super pave, at the top. Both Roman roads and modern roads have had many uses. One usage of the roads is for transportation of people. Another usage is the transportation of food and supplies. Lastly, both the Roman road and the modern road have been used for parades. There are quite a few similarities between Roman roads and modern roads. One of the similarities is that both are made up of a mixture of rocks and concrete. Also, both last a long time and are only only fixed when needed. Likewise, both usually have a drainage system on the sides of the road. Lastly, both supported parades when they were used. There are also differences between the Roman road and the modern road. For instance, Roman roads are older than modern roads and last longer. Also, modern roads have covered drains, while Roman roads have coverless ditches. Furthermore, Roman roads have tightly fitting stones on the surface while modern roads are paved on the surface. Lastly, Romans used horse drawn carriages, oxen drawn carriages, or chariots for transportation, while in modern times we use cars and bicycles to get around. Roman roads have a major effect on my life. I use roads to go to school and other places usually everyday. If there were no such thing as Roman roads, transportation would be harder today. Without roads, it would take me longer to go to school and such. Food and other necessities would take longer to come. Even if we use planes, we wouldnt have a smooth runway for takeoff. That is why Roman roads have a major effect on my life. Roman roads are important to us because because they make transportation easier. Without Roman roads, we wouldnt have durable roads today. I think the Roman road was a great invention because it helped make transportation quicker and easier. Also, Roman roads made the movement of goods faster. Most inventions that transport objects and such need a smooth, strong road to be successful. For example, airplanes need smooth runways, cars need strong roads, and helicopters need a safe landing platform. That is why I think the Roman road is a great architectural achievement.

The Role of ERP Systems in Managing Global Businesses

The Role of ERP Systems in Managing Global Businesses Introduction ERP systems are computer applications and management systems that integrate various business aspects and are used to manage resources, data, and functions (Buckley Casson, 2009). In essence, the ERP systems help to bring a seamless and robust system that supports business processes (Bouquet, Morrison Birkinshaw, 2009).Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on The Role of ERP Systems in Managing Global Businesses specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In supporting business operations, global or multinational firms have invested immensely on ERP systems. However, varied opinions on whether ERP systems capabilities are aligned to helping global businesses needs have been donated. The other conspicuous concern relates to whether ERP systems can help multinational firms to achieve enhanced performance. Although considerable studies have examined the role of ERP systems in supporting global firms, there is still need to research the effect of these systems on the growth of global firms (Beard Sumner, 2004). A lot of literature has been delivered to exhibit the impact of alignment of ERP systems to virtual and international businesses. This paper advances the contribution of the current literature on the role of ERP systems in growth of global businesses. Realizing the requirements to have accurate information, many global firms have decided to align ERP systems with global businesses from which organizational success can be achieved (Beard Sumner, 2004). Discussion There is a growing acceptance of the use of ERP systems across sections of the business world, especially among businesses that seek to globalize. Proponents of ERP systems suggest that with the growing competition, businesses are supposed to develop business systems that will bolster their processes as they exploit new markets. In this paper, I seek to explore the role and the effectiveness of ERP systems in global businesses. Arguably, ERP systems, just like other applications, may have limitations. Integration complexities and high initial investment costs are some of the outright downsides of ERP systems (Beard Sumner, 2004). However, studies conducted on companies that have fully or partially implemented ERP systems reveal that such businesses have managed to canvas the market and penetrate external markets more easily than have businesses with traditional approaches. The linkage between Global businesses Global businesses are businesses that have multinational operations and transfer goods, services, information, skills, and capital across boundaries. These business formations have unique information needs because of their integrated operations in geographically dispersed business units. The need for virtual organizations to source accurate and timely information to enhance business processes has necessitated the use of ERP systems (Bouquet, Morrison Birkinshaw, 2009).Advertising Looking f or research paper on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Since ERP systems are seamless, they allow information sourcing and operating in different time zones requires global businesses to deploy enterprise systems to manage their operations. Global businesses deal with different global cultures as they move toward profiting from their operations (Bouquet, Morrison Birkinshaw, 2009). In the effort to compete on the global platform, businesses conglomerate to form powerful business structures. However, these business units also need information systems as frontiers of global growth. Studies have shown that ERP systems help businesses to manage diversity (Beard Sumner, 2004). There is the need to establish accurate and timely information requirements that befit operations of global nature. As observed, the need to outsource consolidated information is an imperative aspect that global businesses are pushed to achieve. This is where the role of ERP systems comes into play. Clearly, the information required is massive and that traditional business strategies may fail to address challenges of accessing global enterprises (Beard Sumner, 2004). Enterprise Resource planning systems are management systems that enable businesses to have better international coordination, collaboration as strategies in the ambit of multination a business. The rising complexity in information needs of global businesses can be managed by the use of ERP systems due to the capacity of ERP systems to offer multi modular support system. Therefore, businesses, especially multinational and virtual organizations should envision robust capabilities suitable to manage virtual businesses. ERP systems have the capacity to offer an opportunity to arrive at tactical, operational and strategic decisions (Beard Sumner, 2004). Unlike traditional legacy, organizations deploying the regime of ERP systems are able to gather and ut ilize accurate information that can support the growth of businesses. Businesses that want to explore outside markets beyond country boundaries can decide to enter such markets through various strategies, including partnerships, alliances and mergers (Bouquet, Morrison Birkinshaw, 2009). Whether a business decides to take either of the above penetration methods, there is need to execute their techniques via feasible ERP systems. International organizations can use supply chains and third party businesses to approach businesses. ERP systems, according to supply chain professionals, integrate numerous supply chain units to derive business returns. In addition, businesses, with the help of ERP systems are able to support and enhance end-to-end business processes. These businesses have been found to support and coordinate business activities and track business-to-business (B2B) and business-customer (B2C) activities.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Th e Role of ERP Systems in Managing Global Businesses specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In the current global markets, manufacturers are continuously faced with challenges of dramatic reduction in sales margins alongside rising customer expectations. Being a business that seeks to have a successful supply chain system, it is arguable that global firms have the duty to embrace information visibility. The information needs of global firms are different from firms that invest in local and regional markets (Buckley Casson, 2009). ERP systems have been viewed as necessary ingredients in scheduling customer needs and delivering goods and services in following modern business philosophies such as Just-in-time. The ability of these business units separated by a wide geographic divide to collect customer information, analyze and disseminate the information can be achieved though implementing progressive ERP systems (Bartlett Ghoshal, 2003). Integrated enterprise resource planning systems have the ability to help multinationals achieve effective and efficient production and delivery of goods and services. International businesses need to deploy systems that offer high visibility. ERP systems offer an incredible opportunity for global firms to have critical insight into globally competitive platform. ERP systems not only offer opportunities for business taking part in global operations beyond sheer management of operations. Savvy manufacturers and global units recognize the significance of integrated ERP systems in helping them realize their objectives and enable them create scenarios of effective response to the dynamics of global supply chain (Buckley Casson, 2009). ERP systems deliver seamless platforms that reorient such organizations to reduce their long-term IT costs. Global business units can achieve global visibility Achieving global visibility in a demand driven supply chain market is what many global firms are focused o n. In an age of tight competition and cost management, it is essential that manufactures optimize their resources as they continue to offer their unique goods and services (Bartlett Ghoshal, 2003). Businesses need to identify and make use of their inventory and information capacities to derive profits and remain relevant in the market. As businesses engage other partners through supply chain systems and third party logistics, ERP systems are strategic business systems that provide solutions to problems of information sharing between global business, suppliers and customers. Understanding where resources are located, businesses have deployed several technologies to streamline their business operations (Bartlett Ghoshal, 2003). However, research shows that these technology platforms can rely on the right ERP systems to meet the expectations of organizations and their customers. With integrated information systems, ERP systems also support relationships and alliances (Bergeron, Raymo nd Rivard, 2004). The capacity to collect and share large volumes of information between different business units via ERP systems has been cited as a core business factor of success.Advertising Looking for research paper on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The findings of the research conducted on the impact of ERP systems have supported previous studies that conceptualization and alignment of ERP systems capacities creates a ground for improved business performance. The findings of the study establish that each global firm has unique information needs and that ERP platforms have the capacity to support B2B relationships and the flow of information (Buckley Casson, 2009). Managing global performance Many firms have argued that ERP systems have provided actionable information to employees and partners of global business across the world to make viable decisions (Aberdeen, 2007). Through integrating data and providing global visibility, ERP systems can provide quick route toward reduced costs, advanced speed and transparency that aims to improve customer satisfaction. The bottom line is that modern ERP systems have evolved into operating platforms that continue to scale global competition (Bergeron, Raymond Rivard, 2004). ERP systems have become popular business trends among global business organizations that seek to achieve efficacious operations in an era of global business. According to Bergeron, Raymond Rivard (2004), 15 trillion US dollars worth of trade from goods and $3.7 trillion from services are exchanged across borders every day. Analysts suggest that these figures are bound to increase as many businesses continue to appreciate the need for seamless exchange (Aberdeen, 2007). The number of firms are getting into global business are definitely on the increase to take advantage of the opportunities available from global markets. Many reasons have been used to explain why businesses are rushing to employ ERP systems. Increased global demand for goods and services, reduced trade barriers and the need to form multinational alliances are some of the reasons firms are seeking to invest in global business. ERP helps to reduce the costs incurred by an organization in running global activities (Bouquet, Morris on Birkinshaw, 2009). Gone are the days when firms or businesses had to hire many professionals in order to perform technical works such as accounting and network administration. ERP system helps to synchronize all global units and departmental functions with the help of software alone (Bartlett Ghoshal, 2003). Conclusion A growing body of knowledge confirms that the growing competition demands businesses to develop business systems that will bolster their processes as they exploit new markets. In the effort to compete on the global platform, businesses conglomerate to form powerful business structures. However, these business units also need information systems as frontiers of global growth. Studies have shown that ERP systems help businesses to manage diversity. Through integrating data and providing global visibility, ERP systems can provide quick route toward reduced costs, advanced speed and transparency that aims to improve customer satisfaction. Additionally, businesses wit h the help of ERP systems are able to support and enhance end-to-end business processes. These businesses have been found to support and coordinate business activities and track business-to-business (B2B) and business-customer activities. ERP systems deliver seamless platforms that reorient such organizations to reduce their long-term IT costs. References Aberdeen. (2007). The role of ERP in globalization. Boston, Massachusetts: Aberdeen Group. Bartlett, C. A. Ghoshal, S. (2003). What is a global manager? Harvard Business Review, 81(8): 101-108. Beard, J. W., Sumner, M. (2004). Seeking strategic advantage in the post-net era: viewing ERP systems from the resource-based perspective. The Journal of Strategic Information Systems, 13(2): 129-150. Bergeron, F., Raymond, L. Rivard, S. (2004). Ideal patterns of strategic alignment and business performance. Information Management, 41(8): 1003-1020. Bouquet, C., Morrison, A. Birkinshaw, J. (2009). International attention and multination al enterprise performance. Journal of International Business Studies, 40(1): 108-131. Buckley, P. Casson, M. (2009). The internalisation theory of the multinational enterprise: A review of the progress of a research agenda after 30 years. Journal of International Business Studies, 40(9): 1563-1580.

Auditing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Auditing - Essay Example A high net profit margin indicates that a company converts its sales into profits fast. The net profit margin also considers costs associated with the sale of products. There are several factors which triggered a decrease in the net profit margins. They include: a. Inventories Even though, a company treats inventories as an asset in the balance sheet, the cost of sales are not reported until a sale is actually made. Therefore, it is possible to calculate the cost of sales in inventories. However, market fluctuations can reduce the value of inventories which in turn lead to devaluation of net profit margins. An economic slowdown leads to slow moving inventories and decreases company sales and causes a negative impact on net profit margins. b. Price changes Changes in price affect the number of units sold which in turn influences the profits. It is challenging to price items correctly especially in a perfect market. Therefore, the price point of a product is a primary factor responsibl e for decreasing net profit margin. A decrease in price may in turn cause a decrease in net profit margins. c. ... Examples include rent, salaries and depreciation expenses. Even though, these costs do not change based on the volume or production and sales, they still influence the net profit margin. The gross profit margin is calculated as gross profit as a percentage of sales. According to Pamela and Frank (2010), an increase in gross profit margin from one period to another can be caused by one of the following factors: a) Increase in sales volume which in turn affect sales and the cost of sales b) Increase in sales price which affect sales revenue c) Reduction in the cost of production which affects cost of goods sold. Q2- Transactions or accounts that require additional audit effort The following are the transactions or accounts which require additional audit effort based on question one above: Revenues Operating expenses Inventories Cost of goods sold Q3- Additional Audit work In some situations, an auditor may perform additional procedures in order to determine the reliability of the under lying data (Spencer 2010). The auditor should get evidence from multiple sources depending on the risk of material misstatement and the quality and quantity of audit evidence required. Obtaining evidence from different sources or types increases the level of assurance. The additional audit procedures may include Computer-assisted audit techniques (CAATs) and substantive tests. CAATs help in identifying anomalies from the selected items. However, audit evidence may be gotten from items not selected since the auditor uses professional judgment. Substantive tests entail the activities performed by the auditor during the audit so as to obtain evidence regarding the completeness, validity and accuracy of the account balances and the

Health Promotion and Health Education Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Health Promotion and Health Education - Essay Example Obese children also are at increased risk for dyslipidemia, both increased low-density lipoprotein levels and decreased high-density lipoprotein levels (Leung & Robson, 1990). Longitudinal data from the Bogolusa Heart Study indicates a significant risk for developing type 2 diabetes for obese adolescents (Srinivasan, Bao, Wattigney, & Berenson, 1996). Among those who were obese as adolescents, 2.4% had developed type 2 diabetes by the age of 30 compared to none in the non-obese population. The detrimental health effects of obesity are pervasive and enduring. Strauss (1999) reported that being an obese adolescent predicted early mortality even more consistently than obesity in adulthood. The complications related to obesity in youths are not limited to physical health. Obesity in adolescents also has been associated with fewer years of education, higher poverty, lower marriage rates and lower family income (Dietz, 1997; Maffeis & Tato, 2001). However, evidence for an association between overweight and obesity and low self-esteem are inconsistent. Some studies have found no significant relationship (e.g., Gortmaker, 1993; Renman, Engstrom, Silfverdal, & Aman, 1999), while others find that those children and adolescents who are obese exhibit significantly lower self-esteem than their peers (French, Story, & Perry, 1995). Israel and Ivanova (2002) posit that severity of obesity is related to self-esteem with those more severely obese experiencing the most damage to their self-esteem. This hypothesis has been validated in the findings among clinical populations where self-esteem has been significantly related to obesity status (Rumpel & Harris, 1994). The most consisten tly replicated psychosocial outcomes for obesity relate to negative body image (Israel & Ivanvova, 2002). In addition, clinically significant problems with memory functioning and learning abilities have been found among overweight children. These deficits are seemingly the result of sleep apnea, which has been reported at rates as high as 94% among samples of obese children (Brenner, Kelly, Wenger, Brich, & Morrow, 2001). 5.2 Overview of the proposed program In light of the pressing and prevalent problems posed by obesity, the researcher has proposed a cardiovascular risk reduction program which aims at assessing the health behaviors of elementary school children and impacting changes on both a school level and individual level. On the school level, the program aims to decrease the fat and sodium content of the lunch received by elementary students during the course of the school day while simultaneously increasing the level of physical activity among those students. On an individual level, the proposed program aims to first and foremost decrease the level of cholesterol in the blood of the students while secondarily impacting psychosocial changes through mandatory self-reporting as well as behavior modification for aversive health maintenance behavior. Essentially, this proposed program examines the efficacy of school and home-based interventions in impacting changes in children's behavior and promotes a lifestyle that will reduce their risk of heart disease. This program will target both the

The effects roe vs wade had on society Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The effects roe vs wade had on society - Essay Example This essay examines the effects of the legalization of abortion on the United States political spectrum and on the effect it has had on the rights of women, and also attempts to quantify a shift in moral standards that critics and religious leaders claim are a direct result of the Supreme Court’s decision. One of the main effects of the Roe vs. Wade Supreme Court ruling has been the significant reverberations felt by the political spectrum. In the wake of the decision the Republicans and Democrats political parties experienced a decisive split in perspectives that further divided the two major groups (Aster 8). With the election of Ronald Reagan in 1980, the Republican Party defined itself as pro-life (Aster 5). During 2004, the Republican platform outlined their position stating, â€Å"†¦we say the unborn child has a fundamental individual right to life which cannot be infringed (Doan 90).† The same year the Democratic Party issued a pro-choice proclamation, â€Å"Because we believe in the privacy and equality of women, we stand proudly for a woman’s right to choose, consistent with Roe v. Wade (Doan 91).† Whereas previously party affiliations had been contingent on the member’s education or income level, the world after Roe vs. Wade increasingly expe rienced divisions based further on religious distinctions (Aster 194). As the two parties become increasingly divided in their political perspectives, a number of analysts and cultural critics noted a decrease in productive dialogue between the competing parties. For example, since the decision the appointment of Supreme Court Justices has focused predominantly on their stance on the abortion issue (Aster 198). Another important impact Roe vs. Wade had on society was changing the status of women. Feminists argue that the legalization of abortion has given women greater control over their lives and futures and had

Should Apes Have Human Rights?

Should Apes Have Human Rights? Should apes have human rights based on sign language? In todays society apes are considered to be animals and are given no rights even considerably close to humans, in fact, they have no rights to begin with. But rarely is the question asked, should apes have rights based on sign language and other communication skills? Absolutely not. Rights are a human concept, based on the idea of individuals, who, acting independently or having the freedom to do so should be treated equally by law. Animals dont act independent nor have the freedom to do so. They cannot take responsibility for their own actions, and they cannot like humans give enough effort to provide for or influence a society alone. In fact, they do not have a very well put together social group. Therefore, it makes no sense to give animals human rights just because they understand some parts of a human language and some sign language. But what about the questions of whether animals should have any special protection, such as protection from harm from owners or caretakers as they call them, or should they be kept from cages and set free in their natural habitat? Monkeys live together in social groups. All members contribute by helping to conserve, find, and defend food sources, raise their offspring, etc, just as people in a society do. But it isnt possible to live in a social group without some way or form of communication. Members of a social group need ways to influence and inform each other. This is what influences language. Monkeys have evolved many ways of communicating, including visual looks, auditory calls, etc. Some of their visual signals are very intriguing, like the long, curled tongue of the tamarin monkey, that signals to her mate when she wants to birth her babies. But visual signals only work if they can be seen. In the forest that most gorillas and apes live in, auditory and visual calls are a muc h more useful and powerful tool. Calls and vocalizations can also be changed through pitch, loudness, and duration, which means a vast list of messages can be transmitted through one ape to another. Alarm calls, territorial calls, food calls, personal identification calls, dominance calls, etc. these are the basic communication skills that animals need to successfully live in groups rather than be living on their own. But some developed more complex and specialized forms of auditory communication. Researchers and Specialists have spent years trying to learn how apes communicate and find out if they are able to learn human signals and language. In September of 1965 in West Africa the chimpanzee Washoe was born, and was one of the first apes to learn sign language as part of a research experiment on animal language acquisition. In the apes time on Earth, she learned exactly three hundred and fifty signs of communication. One day, one of Washoes caretakers who was pregnant missed work for a few months after she had an unfortunate miscarriage. Roger Fouts reviews the following situationPeople who should be there for her and arent are often given the cold shoulderher way of informing them that shes miffed at them. Washoe greeted Kat [Washoes caretaker] in just this way when she finally returned to work with the chimps. Kat made her apologies to Washoe, then decided to tell her the truth, signing MY BABY DIED. Washoe stared at her, then looked down. She finally peered into Kats eyes again and carefully signed CRY, touching her cheek and drawing her finger down the path a tear would make on a human (Chimpanzees dont shed tears). Also, when shown an image of herself, Washoe was asked what she saw and she signaled back Me, Washoe. This shows that apes are definitely capable of self-awareness. Another ape named Koko (born July 4, 1971) is a female gorilla born in the San Francisco Zoo known for learning a huge amount of signs, of a language that his caregiver Patterson calls gorilla sign language, or GSL. Kokos training began at the age of one, where she was exposed to human language, and by the time of her death, she understood over two thousand English words Koko is one of the few nonhuman animals that had pets. One year for Christmas Koko asked for a pet cat in 1983 so they gave her a lifelike toy cat, but Koko signed sad many times. So on her birthday in July 1984, she was able to choose a cat from a litter of abandoned kittens. Koko selected a gray cat and named him All Ball. According to Penny Patterson, Kokos owner, Koko cared for the kitten as if it was a baby gorilla, being very gentile and loving. Sadly, in December of 1984, All Ball escaped from Kokos cage, and was hit by a car. Later, Patterson said that when she signaled to Koko that All Ball had died, and Kok o signed Bad, sad, bad and Frown, cry, frown, sad. Recently, to celebrate her birthday in July 2015, Koko was presented another litter of kittens, Picking two of them, she named one Miss Black and one Miss Grey. These examples show that apes to can feel, and If we abuse apes, it goes against our human nature, because we know animals can feel pain and emotion to, and theres no good reasoning that this cant be law, yet not part of human rights. My argument is that we should always value the interest of humans over and above those of animals, which is why researching all animals- which can further medical advance and human knowledge is morally the best thing to do. Animal research could help to decide how smart monkeys really are, and how we should treat their kind as a whole. Based on Steven Wises research, it appears that animals such as apes possess certain cognitive abilities such as communication skills, attention, memory, judgement, problem solving, decision making, comprehension, etc., that make them smart enough to be free rather than in a cage at a zoo handled by humans to provide entertainment and big business. Steven Wise once said, For four thousand years, a thick and impenetrable legal wall has separated all human from all nonhuman animals. On one side, even the most trivial interests of a single species ours are jealously guarded. We have assigned ourselves, alone among the million animal species, the status of legal persons. On the other side of that wall lies the legal refuse of an entire kingdom, not just chimpanzees and bonobos but also gorillas, orangutans, and monkeys, dogs, elephants, and dolphins. They are legal things. Their most basic and fundamental interests their pains, their lives, their freedoms are intentionally ignored, often maliciously trampled, and routinely abused. Ancient philosophers claimed that all nonhuman animals had been designed and placed on this earth just for human beings. Ancient jurists declared that law had been created just for human beings. Although philosophy and science have long since recanted, the law has not. In conclusion, apes shouldnt have human rights, but they should be free and have rights of their own kind, made for their own kind, which should be bound by law, because they show several cases of self-awareness, communication skills, knowledge, attention, working memory, judgment, reasoning, problem solving and decision making, comprehension and production of language, etc. Several apes have shown these skills and though they may not be as smart as humans, they are smart enough and capable enough of living in their own society where they should be able to roam free instead of being shown off in a zoo or being sold as product Works Cited Barlow, Rich Something. Should Chimps Have the Rights of People? Bostonia. Rich Barlow, 19 Sept. 2013. Web. 07 Feb. 2017. OstlerKCL, Sophia. Should Monkeys Be Granted Human Rights? The Telegraph. Telegraph Media Group, n.d. Web. 07 Feb. 2017. Should Animals Have The Same Rights As People? Popular Science. N.p., n.d. Web. 07 Feb. 2017. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koko_(gorilla)#Koko.27s_pets Spearmint: Analgesic, Anti-Inflammatory and Antipyretic Spearmint: Analgesic, Anti-Inflammatory and Antipyretic Review: Yousuf, P. (2013). Analgesic, Anti-Inflammatory and Antipyretic Effect of Mentha spicata (Spearmint). British Journal of Pharmaceutical Research,3(4), 854-864. doi:10.9734/bjpr/2013/4640 Mentha spicata (Spearmint) is often used as an alternative treatment for inflammation, fever, and pain relief.   All of these problems can present symptoms such as cramps, headache, joint stiffness, and general aches and pains.   Inflammation, pain and fever can all be treated with over the counter drugs such as ibuprofen and acetaminophen, but these drugs can often have severe side effects if used long term.   Many essential oils have been used in aromatherapy and proven to be effective in treating pain relief, inflammation and fever.   The purpose of this study was to evaluate the analgesic, anti-inflammatory and antipyretic effect of Mentha spicata (spearmint). The test subjects for this study were young Swiss-Albino mice about 4-5 weeks in age with an average weight of 25-30 gm and adult Albino rats with an average weight of 100-130 gm.   The study was conducted at the animal house of the Department of Pharmacy, North Sough University, Bangladesh.   Subjects were kept for one week in standard housing at 25 degrees Celsius in order to adapt before testing proceeded.   Animals were also given standard food and water. Separate tests and methods were given for each of the items being looked at: anti-inflammation, fever and pain.   For the evaluation of anti-inflammatory effect, the method used was carrageenan induced rat paw edema.   This method induces acute swelling when a solution of carrageenan in saline is injected into the hind footpad of the subjects.   The rats were randomly divided into four groups, each with five animals.   Group I was the control group, and only given distilled water.   Group II was given Ketorolac (10mg/kg) as standard, and Groups III and IV were given the test sample at a dose of 250 and 500 mg/kg body weight respectively.   Thirty minutes after the oral administration of the test materials, 1% carrageenan was injected into the left hind paw of each animal.   The amount of paw edema was measured at  ½, 1, 2, 3, and 6 hours after administration.   For the evaluation of antipyretic (fever) activity, Brewers yeast-induced pyrexia was used.   Wister alb ino rats were selected, weighed and divided into three groups of five animals each.   All the test subjects were fasted 18 hours prior to experiment, but water was given.   Fever was induced by injecting 20 ml/kg of 20% aqueous suspension of Brewers yeast in saline below the nape of the neck.   Rectal temperature was taken immediately before and 18 hours after injection.   Prior to the experiment, the rats were maintained in separate cages for 7 days and the animals with approximately constant rectal temperature were selected for the study. Paracetamol (100 mg/kg) was used as standard drug for comparing the antipyretic action of extract. The extract at the doses of 500 mg/kg was administered intraperitoneally, one group was administered with paracetamol (100 mg/kg) control group was given 0.5 ml normal saline. The rectal temperature was measured at 1, 2 and 3 h after drug administration by using digital thermometer. Percentage reduction in rectal temperature was calculated b y considering the total fall in temperature to normal level.   Two methods of evaluation were used to test the analgesic effects.   The first was a hot plate test.   The temperature was regulated at 55 °  ± 1 °C. Mice were divided into four groups consisting of five animals in each group. The mice of each group were placed in the beaker (on the hot plate) in order to obtain its response to electrical heat induced pain. Licking of the paws or jumping out of the beaker was taken as an indicator of the animals response to heat-induced pain. The time for each mouse to lick its paws or jump out of the beaker was taken as reaction time (in seconds). Before treatment, the reaction time was taken once. Each of the test mice was treated with either distilled water (DW), Ketorolac (2.5 mg/kg of body weight) or methanol extract of Mentha spicata at the doses of 250 and 500 mg/kg body weight orally. Thirty minutes after treatment, the reaction time of each group of mice were again e valuated five times individually in one hour intervals.   The second test administered was acetic acid induced writhing test.   Writhing test is a chemical method used to induce pain by injecting acetic acid into the mice.   The acetic acid was injected into the body cavity to create the pain sensation.   Ketorolac (10 mg/kg) was used as a standard. The plant extract was administered orally in two different doses (250 and 500 mg/kg body weight) to the Swiss Albino mice after an overnight fast. Test samples and vehicle were administered orally 30 minutes prior to intraperitoneal administration of 0.7% v/v acetic acid solution at 10 ml/kg body weight. Animals were kept individually under glass jar for observation. Each mouse of all groups were observed individually for counting the number of writhing they made in 5minutes beginning 5 minutes after the injection.   The number of writhes in each treated group was compared to that of a control group (Distilled water). The hot plate test produced significant analgesic effect when using the methanol extract of Mentha spicata.   The extract significantly increased the reaction time of the mice when exposed to the heat.   The writhing test showed significant analgesic results as well and was comparable to that of the standard (66.66%).   The Brewers yeast proved positive effects of fever, and the carrageenan-induced paw edema proved that Mentha spicata is effective in treating inflammation. The authors conclude that Mentha spicata proves to show significant analgesic, anti-inflammatory and antipyretic properties.   They state that further investigation is necessary to find the active component of the extract in order to confirm the action in the development of a potent analgesic, anti-inflammatory and antipyretic agent. This study is lacking in the amount of mice tested.   I would like to see a more wide range of subjects tested as well.   Although the number of mice tested is limited, the study is still of interest. First, all the results were in favor of the testing purposes.   This is interesting because it means that the medicinal properties are probably correct and would therefore be a good alternative to treating such ailments. And second, most people will at some point or another in their life suffer from pain, inflammation or fever.  Ã‚   This treatment would be a good alternative to medications that can have potential bad side effects and therefore reducing additional ailments and complications that need to be treated.   References Yousuf, P. (2013). Analgesic, Anti-Inflammatory and Antipyretic Effect of Mentha spicata (Spearmint). British Journal of Pharmaceutical Research,3(4), 854-864. doi:10.9734/bjpr/2013/4640

The Creation of Encyclopedia :: History Philosophy Philosophers essays

The Creation of Encyclopedia Webster's New World Dictionary defines the Enlightenment as "an 18th-century European philosophical movement characterized by rationalism, an impetus toward learning, and a spirit of skepticism and empiricism in social and political thought." During this period of enlightenment, the way the world was viewed changed in a large part because of the group of philosophers known as the philosophes. During the Enlightenment the greatest philosophical movement of the philosophes was the creation of the Encylopedie ou Dicionnaire raisonne des sciences des arts et des mà ©tiers, or in English; the rational dictionary of the sciences, the arts and the crafts, otherwise known as the Encyclopedia. The philosophe's encyclopedia is regarded so highly because it brought about a new way of thinking, an enlightened way of thinking. The encyclopedia, according to the Electric Library, dates back to Aristotle and his attempts at compiling large amounts of information. Other encyclopedia's were written after Aristotle's attempt, including one that was published just a few years before the philosophe's Encyclopedia, the Ephraim Chambers's Cyclopaedia. (1) According to the Denis Diderot History web page, the Ephraim Chambers's Cyclopaedia was the inspiration for the philosophe's Encyclopedia. The intention was to create a French translation of the Ephraim Chambers's Cyclopaedia, but when Denis Diderot was hired as editor, the outlook of the Encyclopedia changed. Diderot did not want a mere translation; instead he wanted an encyclopedia that would "enlighten and explain every aspect of existence." (1) Denis Diderot and another editor, Jean le Rond d'Alembert, a noted scientist and mathematician, started working on the Encyclopedia in 1745. Among the many responsibilities of creating such a big compilation of knowledge, was finding authors to write the Encyclopedia. To accomplish this task, Diderot and d'Alembert employed the services of some of the greatest minds of the time: people like Voltaire, Turgot, Quesnay, d'Holbach, Montesquieu, Buffon, and Rousseau. Robert Morrissey summed up the philosophes efforts by saying that, "these great minds (and some lesser ones) collaborated in the goal of assembling and disseminating in clear, accessible prose the fruits of accumulated knowledge and learning." (2) The Encyclopedia itself consists of seventeen volumes with a total of roughly 72,000 articles and 16,500 pages. According to Morrisey, "the typical article includes the head word, its part of speech and gender, the category of knowledge to which the article belongs (e.